US History of US health care

Table of Contents Health insurance in US History of Laser Eye Surgery Michael DeBakey: Father of cardiovascular surgery Health care reforms in the U.S Vaccination: A preventive measure for all ages References Health insurance in US Health care is arguably one of the most pressing concerns of governments all over the world. All developed countries are characterized by having elaborate healthcare systems which are in place to ensure that majority of the population has access to medical care when they need it. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on US History of US health care specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Arguably, health care insurance is a relatively new trend in the US. Before 1920, doctors and medical practitioners did not have many insights on diseases and curative techniques. As such, the cost of receiving medical care was relatively low and affordable to many Americans. However, as ore discoveries were mad e and new techniques of delivering healthcare services emerged, the cost of receiving the same began to increase. As a result, many people could not afford quality care due to financial constraints. To this effect, private companies started offering health plans to their employees. However, the healthcare plans only covered against accidents related to travel by rail or water. However, these plans paved way to more comprehensive covers that catered for other illnesses and injuries. In 1847, Massachusetts Health Insurance of Boston became the first company to offer group policies that gave comprehensive cover to its clients. Consequently, in 1890, insurance companies started offering individual disability and illness policies to their clients (Northern California Neurosurgery Medical Group, 2007). By 1929, group insurance covers had gained prominence in the US. Baylor Hospital was the first organization to enter into a contract with a group of teachers from Dallas. This agreement ai med at ensuring that these teachers receive room, board and medical services from the hospital. The teachers on the other hand agreed to pay a monthly fee in exchange for these services. Soon after, several life insurance companies joined this seemingly lucrative field. A precursor to future health care insurance schemes in America was Blue Cross which was the first innovation that changed the shape of the health care system in America. This plan developed in 1930 advocated the payment of small premiums that would be cover the medical costs should one be hospitalized. Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The rationale behind this scheme was that while huge medical bills were unaffordable to most people, little deductions over a long period of time were affordable to majority of the population (Kooijman, 1999). This form of prepaid service was beneficial to both the hospital and th e consumer especially in times of economic difficulties since neither party had to worry about the hospital bill being cleared. During the Second World War, employers started offering insurance cover to their employees mostly as a way of attracting and retaining the employees. However, this created a trend and became almost mandatory as strong trade unions started to negotiate for insurance packages for their employees. Northern California Neurosurgery Medical Group, (2007) notes that as of 1960, private health insurance was deeply entrenched into the American health care system and over 70% of the citizens had some form of cover. In 1965, the U.S government created the Medicare and Medicaid programs with the aim of subsidizing the escalating cost of medical services. This was mainly due to the fact that private sources catered for 75% of their medical costs. At this rate, many citizens could not cover their medical costs. However, these programs proved to be effective because as at 1995, individuals and companies enjoyed reduced costs since they only paid about half of their medical bills while the government covered the rest through these programs (U.S. Department of Health Human Services, 2009). History of Laser Eye Surgery In the past few decades, inventions and breakthrough scientific discoveries in the biological field have resulted in the prevalence of access to sophisticated equipment and advanced diagnostic procedures that were once only in the reins of research institutes and few specialist hospitals. One of these technological advancements has been in the form of laser eye surgery. Documented evidence indicates that over the past one hundred years, there has been an increased interest in refractive surgery. By 1898, Lans, a prominent professor of Ophthalmology had laid out the basic principles of radial keratotomy. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on US History of US health care specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Before 1970, various eye specialists adopted different methods and techniques to treat eye related problems. However, there were many complications regarding these techniques and in some cases, they made the situation worse than it was before. The most significant breakthrough was made in Russia in 1970’s. This was in a case whereby Dr. Fyodorov was treating a boy whose glasses had broken and damaged his eyes (Taylor, 2011). This situation gave the doctor an opportunity to test the effectiveness of radial keratotomy. After the surgery, the doctor documented that the boy’s refractions were significantly less than they were before the injury. This discovery prompted him to do more research on the process. As a result, he came up with a formula that made refractive surgery more predictable than it was before (Taylor, 2011). It was not until 1978 that American ophthalmologist Dr. Leo Bores brought back the necessary technology for this surgery into America (LaserSurgeryForEyes.com, 2002). It should be noted that until 1970, lasers were primarily used to produce silicone computer chips in America. The mode of production was referred to as Excimer laser process. After further research, it was discovered that the Excimer laser process could be used to remove damaged tissues without the risk of heat damaging the surrounding tissues. This discovery was made in 1982 by three members of an IBM research team. Soon after, this technique was applied in an array of medical procedures and treatments. However, it was not until 1982 that Dr. Steven Trokel, an American ophthalmologist based in New York first conducted the first eye surgery using this technique (Laser Eye Surgery, 2009). The following decade saw scientists and researchers devote significant efforts towards perfecting the technique. It was not until 1996 that the government finally approved laser eye surgery in US (Laser Eye Surgery, 2009). This approval led to an increase in eye treatment options. It should be noted that before this approval, some eye treatment options would leave the patient immobile for a long period of time (six or more weeks), and the surgeries were very risky. However, laser eye surgery presented practitioners and patients with a less risky, time saving, efficient and convenient option to correcting eye problems. Arguably, if you were among the 80% of Americans who require vision correction, the only option before the approval of laser eye surgery would have been either glasses or contact lenses. Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, this is no longer the case since this techniques enables ophthalmologists to correct eye defects such as near or farsightedness effectively through radial keratotomy. More research is being carried out to improve the technique and facilitate better and safer eye correction services in the future. Michael DeBakey: Father of cardiovascular surgery A life well lived is one that is lived in such a way that it makes a positive difference to others.throughout history, different people have been credited for their works in regard to making a difference in the lives of others. Michael DeBakey is among such people in the medical arena. Born in 1908, in Los Angeles, this American surgeon helped develop various treatments and surgical procedures that have revolutionized the medical practice up to date. Before he died of natural causes in 2008, Michael DeBakey had performed heart operations in excess of 60,000. In addition, he had published more than 1,500 scientific publications tha t helped other practitioners understand and treat various medical phenomenons. His works have helped add decades of years to some of his patients in America and abroad. Similarly, he has trained many renowned surgeons across the world. As regarding to his achievements and contributions in the healthcare sector, Michael DeBakey invented the roller-pump in 1932 (NNDB, 2011). Twenty years later, this invention became an integral component during the development of the heart-lung machine which enabled cardiovascular surgeons to conduct open-heart surgeries. NNDB (2011) further document that in 1953, Michael DeBakey â€Å"introduced improved Dacron and Dacron-velour artificial grafts to replace damaged arteries†. He was among the leaders in the development of artificial arteries and introduced the concept of bypass surgery in the healthcare sector (NNDB, 2011). He is also credited for the creation and development of the Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals (M.A.S.H) concept, which help ed save many lives during the Korean and Vietnamese wars (wic, 2011). Arguably, Michael DeBakey is best known for inventing the ventricular assist device (VAD) that is commonly referred to as the artificial heart. He invented this device in 1968 so that it would help patients whose hearts had weak cardiovascular muscles pump blood by assisting the main pumping chamber. It should be noted that this invention was never intended to replace the full heart but merely to offer assistance to weakened hearts. However, it paved way for more research and consequently, the first artificial heart was developed and implanted into a human being a year later. This operation was carried out in 1969 by Dr. Denton Cooley who was a former colleague of Michael DeBakey (NNDB, 2011). In his pursuit for perfection, Michael DeBakey together with another colleague invented the Jarvik artificial heart (NNDB, 2011). This heart was first fitted into a human being in 1982. Later on in the 90s, Michael DeBakey in collaboration with NASA developed a miniaturized heart pump. This pump was so small that it could easily and comfortably be implanted in a child. These are among the key contributions that the renowned surgeon and physician made during his lifetime. Besides this, he was best known as being a Good Samaritan, a pioneer and a dedicated statesman who strived to ensure that every person had a chance to live a long and health life. The Wic website states that â€Å"Dacron arteries, arterial bypass operations, artificial hearts, heart pumps and heart transplants are common procedures in today’s medicine, thanks to Dr. DeBakey (wic, 2011). This statement is true as has been elaborated in this essay. Health care reforms in the U.S The US government has always taken a keen interest in the healthcare provision of its citizens. Kovner, Knickman and Jonas (2008) state that this idea of government involvement in the health concerns of the citizens can trace its existence from as far back as the 17th century. It is recorded that as early as the beginning of the 19th century, a majority of American citizens were worried about the affordability and availability of health care. It is for this reason that the public healthcare option was conceived in the late 1800s. However, it was in the era of President Theodore Roosevelt that health reforms took a definite shape. His monumental declaration that â€Å"Nothing can be more important to a state than its public health: the state’s paramount concern should be the health of its people.† (Sebelius, 2009) highlighted his dedication towards achieving a system that he perceived would afford the population the best opportunity to acquire health care. Roosevelt’s continuous commitment to a national health insurance plan through from 1912 was one of the key factors that shaped the public health insurance policies in the United States. Kooijman (1999), states that as of 1935, the efforts for national heal th insurance were greatly derailed by medical practitioners who were greatly opposed to the scheme. This opposition stemmed from a misguided perception of what health insurance implied. The practitioners mistook the national health insurance for a socialistic system of medical practice whereby the government would limit the fee they received for their services. This widespread lack of support for the system led to the exclusion of a national health insurance plan in the social security act thus dealing a great blow to the public option. In 1994, the then US President Clintons made a move to provide universal coverage through an employer mandate in 1994 (Singer, 2009). However, his administration was against a public insurance option which he deemed to be too expensive. President Bush also dealt a blow to the universal health care system by his move to veto a proposed health insurance program. He perceived the plan as a move towards a socialized health care system which would be unw anted since it would end up benefiting people who did not need any assistance. The public option received a new lease of life with the election of President Obama in 2008. One of his major campaign policies was the wide spread reforms in the health care system. This has been perceived to be one of the major factors that led to his election. President Obama sees a shift towards a healthcare system that is both affordable and places value on quality service as the solution to the troubled system currently in place. His emphasis is on the affordability of health care for all American citizens through the adoption of a public option that would offer competitive prices to the people and therefore greatly regulate the health insurance market. However, his aim towards this has been marred by opposition from senators and financial institution. Vaccination: A preventive measure for all ages Over the past few years there have been an increase in the number of diseases that affect human bein gs. As such, researchers and medical experts have dedicated most of the available resources to ensure that both preventive and curative measures are put in place in a bid to avoid further spread of the various diseases that pose a serious risk to the human race. The major challenge being faced globally is creating awareness of the diseases and controlling or containing their spread. Throughout history, vaccination has proven to be an effective strategy against many life threatening infections and ailments. In the United States, vaccines were used to eradicate life-threatening conditions such as polio and small pox. Arguably, the rise and fall of small pox is among the best feat when it comes to medical breakthroughs. The origin of the disease is not well known but it is believed to have originated from Africa and spread through other parts of the world. However, it was reported in most parts of America in the 17th and the 18th centuries. The fall of the scourge came through the r ealization that the people who survived the disease became immune for life. This knowledge led to the development of the process known as variolation (Brannon, 2005). This process involved infecting a healthy person with a mild form of small pox in the hope that he/she would develop some immunity against the disease in the future. The process worked and people underwent this process. Statistics indicate that 2-3% of people who underwent this process died of smallpox (Brannon, 2005). However, the majority survived and the number of people infected by this disease reduced significantly. Edward Jenner is credited for being the inventor of the first small pox vaccine (Brannon, 2005). The English physician observed that milkmaids who developed cowpox were less vulnerable to small pox. As a result, in 1796, the physician took a pustule sample of the cowpox infected maid and inoculated an 8 year old boy with it (Brannon, 2005). Six weeks later, Jenner exposed the subject to smallpox. To his own amazement, the boy did not show any symptoms of the disease. It is from this result that Jenner came up with the word vaccine. The word came from the Latin word ‘vaca’, which means cow (Brannon, 2005). Initially, many practitioners and people criticized his work but as his success rate increased; his method was rapidly adopted by other practitioners. Statistics indicate that at the wake of 1800, more than 100,000 people were already vaccinated against the disease. In America, the last outbreak of the disease was reported in 1949 (Brannon, 2005). The outbreak only affected eight people and claimed one life. However, the disease still claimed lives in other parts of the world. As a result, the world health organization initiated a campaign in 1967 (Brannon, 2005). The main purpose of this campaign was to promote awareness and eradicate smallpox in all regions of the world. This goal was realized in the ten years that followed. This was attributed to the massive vaccination efforts that ensued during that period (Brannon, 2005). Consequently, the last case of smallpox was reported in Somalia in 1977. However, measures were taken to ensure that everyone was vaccinated against the disease. Subsequently, in 1980, the World Health Assembly finally declared the world free from this killer disease (Brannon, 2005). It should be noted that by the year 1972, America had already vaccinated all its citizens but continued to vaccinate military personnel who were at risk of infection due to the nature of their job (Brannon, 2005). Vaccinations have been used to create immunity against other diseases. As a result, the infant mortality rate has decreased significantly across the world as compared to the situation a century ago. References Brannon, H. (2005). The History of Smallpox: The Rise and fall of a Disease. Retrieved from: http://dermatology.about.com/cs/smallpox/a/smallpoxhx.htm Kooijman, R. (1999). The Pursuit of National Health: the Incremental Strategy toward National Health Insurance in the United States of America. USA: Rodopi. Kovner, A. R., Knickman, J. R., Jonas, S. (2008). Health Care Delivery in the United States. New York: Springer Publishing Company. LaserSurgeryForEyes.com. (2002). History of Laser Eye Surgery. Retrieved from: http://www.lasersurgeryforeyes.com/history.html Laser Eye Surgery. (2009). History of Laser Eye Surgery. Retrieved from: http://www.dlxguard.com/history-laser-eye-surgery NNDB. (2011). Michael DeBakey. Retrieved from: http://www.nndb.com/people/241/000027160/ Northern California Neurosurgery Medical Group. (2007). The History of Health Insurance In The United States. Retrieved from: http://www.neurosurgical.com/medical_history_and_ethics/history/history_of_health_insurance.htm Sebelius, K. (2009). Health Insurance Reform Will Benefit All Americans. 15 Aug. 2009. Retrieved from: http://www.healthreform.gov/ Singer P. (2009). Why We Must Ration Health Care. July 15, 2009. Retrieved from: ht tp://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/19/magazine/19healthcare-t.html?_r=1 Taylor, J. (2011). The Laser Eye Surgery History. Retrieved from: http://www.lasereyesurgery.net/Types/history.html U.S. Department of Health Human Services. (2009). Historical Highlights. Retrieved from: http://www.hhs.gov/about/hhshist.html Wic. (2010). Michael E. DeBakey, M.D: Pioneer, innovator, miracle maker, Samaritan. Retrieved from: http://www.wic.org/bio/debakey.htm This essay on US History of US health care was written and submitted by user Yasmin Mendoza to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Dealing With Restroom Use During Class

Dealing With Restroom Use During Class How do you handle requests from students to go to the bathroom during class? Every so often you will see a news story about a teacher who did not let a child use the bathroom during class causing them to have an embarrassing accident. Restroom use during class is a sticky issue that deserves some thought so that you do not end up on the news. We have all experienced sitting in a meeting when we really have to use the restroom. People retain less information when they are focused on their need to relieve themselves. Therefore, it is important that you provide a way for students to use the restroom, while  at the same time maintain control within your classroom. Issues With Restroom Use A couple of issues exist that cause teachers to be wary of allowing  restroom use during class. It can be very disruptive. One of the most annoying things to a teacher is trying to hold a classroom discussion and when they call on a student who has raised their hand, the only thing they do is ask if they can go to the bathroom.It can be easily abused. Every teacher has encountered a student who does not have a medical issue yet asks to go to the bathroom each and every day.Roaming the halls is not acceptable. Most schools have strict policies concerning who can be out of class. This helps the school maintain control and keeps disruption to other classes to a minimum. You dont want to be in the hot seat by allowing too many students to leave your class at once or by having your students cause a problem when they are supposed to be in your class. Ideas to Help Control Restroom Use What can you do to allow students to go to the bathroom when they really need to but at the same time maintain control? Make it a policy that only one student can go to the bathroom at a time from your class. This relieves the problem of having too many students out at once.Give students a limit to the amount of time they are allowed out. This will help cut down on students taking advantage of leaving the class. You will need to come up with a discipline plan associated with this to help with enforcement.Institute a policy that students cannot ask to go to the restroom until you are at your desk or at a minimum not addressing the entire class. This is fine but remember that if a student has a medical issue of which you have been informed then they should be allowed to leave when it is necessary. You might want to consider creating a special pass for them for this purpose.Track who is going each day if you think there is an issue. If a student is abusing the privilege talk to them about it. If this does not stop the behavior, call and talk to their parents. There may be situations where a student abuse s the privilege every day without a medical reason. In one example, when the teacher denied the student the ability to go one day, the parents called and complained causing a lot of problems for this particular teacher. A call to the parents before instituting the policy with that student could have helped because they would not be getting the story just from their child. Restroom use can quickly become an emotionally charged subject. Make sure that you spend some time creating and perfecting your own restroom use plan so that you can stay focused on teaching and not on this issue. You can refer to How to Create a Restroom Pass System for more ideas.

Destructiveness of garment structure Dissertation

Destructiveness of garment structure - Dissertation Example Deconstruction  -----------------------12 2.2 Identification of Conceptual and Functional Fashion----14 2.3 The Idea of Experimental Design in Fashion-------------15 2.4 Architectural Deconstruction in the Structure of Fashion Apparel---------17 Chapter 3: Case Studies-------------------------------------------------------------24 3.1 The Impact of Japanese Designers-------------------------24 3.1.1 Rei Kawakubo, Founder of Commes des Garcons----------27 3.1.2 Yohji Yamamoto--------------------------------29 3.2 The Influence of Experimental Designers-----------------31 3.2.1 Martin Margiela----------------------------------32 3.2.2 Hussein Chalayan---------------------------------35 Chapter 4: Fashion Collection on Deconstruction of Garment Design: Origami Art and Geometric Patternin-----------37 Chapter 5: Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------42 REFERENCES----------------------------------------------------------------------43 REFERENCES FOR IL LUSTRATIONS------------------------------------------46 List of Figures Fig. 1a. Sydney Opera House: Section Drawing------------------------------------------19 Fig.1b. Sydney Opera House: Photo-------------------------------------------------------19 Figs. 2a., 2b., 2c.Ozezen’s Dress Designs Inspired by Sydney Opera House--------20 Fig. 3. A-POC Clothing Line by Issey Miyake, 2004-----------------------------------22 Fig.4. Testa’s Carbon Tower---------------------------------------------------------------23 Figs. 5a, 5b. Rei Kawakubo: The Lumps and Bumps Collection----------------------28 Figs. 6a, 6b. Yohji Yamamoto: Spring 2012, Ready to Wear---------------------------30 Figs. 7a, 7b. Maison Martin Margiela: Spring 2012 Ready to Wear-------------------34 Figs. 8a, 8b. Chalayan: Fall...Gill (1998) argues that clothes are not liberated from funtionality because of deconstruction as an external causal force. On the other hand, the elimination of functionality from clo thing is achieved through a complex interaction between bodies, clothing and their different settings of use (Gill, 1998). Salingaros and Alexander (2004) state that deconstruction is a new concept that denotes the breaking up of coherent forms; it takes apart traditional literature, art and architecture. In buidling construction, the concept has become increasingly influential among architects, scholars, educators, decision makers, policy makers, and developers of prestigious construction projects. Deconstruction in architecture is more than mere visual fashion, and contributes extensively to form, function and aesthetics (Salingaros & Alexander, 2004). It is characterized by broken lines and lopsided asymmetrical shapes portraying the destruction of conventional principles. Other possible elements of architectural deconstruction include a building construction of unsuitable scale for human use, either two small or excessively big, disconnected and unrelated components and surfaces, along with highly polished metal work and sparkling glass, state Saligaros & Alexander (2004).

Business and Globalisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business and Globalisation - Essay Example A third reason is the arrival of the information age, with computers and the internet which means that people and businesses can receive instant news about developments all across the world. New links, for example between raw material suppliers, manufacturers and markets for finished products can be spotted, created and managed very easily. Some people think that it is a very positive phenomenon, for example Dehasa (2006) who believes that this increased circulation of goods across the world will be a win-win situation, and that everyone will make money from it. Others see that there are also disadvantages, for example Steglitz (2002) who points out that when a small business, or a community which depends on one or two main products comes into a much bigger market, then it has very little control over what happens in that market. In countries like Colombia, for example, with its dependence on coffee production through the first half of the twentieth century, exporting their goods was a great benefit for a while, so long as the price of coffee was high and people in other countries wanted to buy it. There are problems, however, when for example competition grows and the price drops, or when major buyers get involved in war, for example, and the demand is suddenly no longer there. This kind of event can be absorbed in a bigger and more diverse business field, but it can be devastating to smaller or tightly focused business areas. There is also a significant inequality between developed countries, who often set the quality standards and the prices, and less developed countries, who have very little choice in the deals that are set up. A further dimension of globalisation is the effect that it has on the world’s resources, and this includes both materials for production, and the environment in which these materials are produced. Some resources, like the hardwood forests of the Amazon, are limited in size and the destruction of rainforests may bring short ter m gains for businesses, both in South America and in the countries where their trading partners are, but there will be longer term effects which are potentially serious for the whole world. When business is international, crossing national boundaries and involving transnational organisations and multi-national companies, then it is often hard to see who should be responsible for the effect on the planet. Many companies have good ethical policies which prevent extreme damage from occurring, but there are also many others which exploit scarce resources with no thought for the consequences on the earth, or on local people. One of the ways that these issues can be addressed is to combine globalisation with sustainable development. This can work with renewable resources like wood, but it is not a solution for finite resources like oil and some rare minerals and metals. If a business wants to take advantage of globalisation, then it must make very careful preparations before launching int o a big venture. People use terms like â€Å"the global village† to refer to the way that the world is increasingly connected, but very often there are huge cultural differences that make true communication very difficult (Brysk, 2000). A good example of this is the

Operations Management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Operations Management - Term Paper Example The company also offers consulting services for its customers, helping them understand the best applications for which the hardware and the software provision by the company can be put into by customer organizations. The company was established in 1911, through a merger of three technology companies, and adopted it’s current name in 1924. In the year 2011, the company was ranked as the 7th most profitable company in the US, being the 18th largest company of the US (Walters, 2011). On the global chart, the company is ranked the 31st largest company of the year 2011. Therefore, International Business Machine Company is a force to reckon with in the global arena that has curved a competitive edge in the technology industry, which many other companies have not been able. The history of IBM dates back in the 1880s, where the company manufactured a range of machinery such as weighing machines, meat slicers, time keepers, under the name of Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation ( CTR), which later changed to the present day IBM (Buck, 2006). The company diversified its production activities to include computer components later, to extend the risks of business failure and low profitability associated with specializing in a single product line for a business. The organizational culture of the company was effectively established in 1914 by the president of the company, who required that the organization focus on the customer as the key to the success of the company. Employee motivation, participation in business decision-making and in running the affairs of the company dates back then. This culture of the company has been maintained to date. This culture was entrenched in the organization through hiring a disabled worker in 1914 and establishing employee education department in 1916 (Walters, 2011). These occurrences were meant to base the success of the company on the satisfaction and professionalism of the employee, who would then serve the company’s c ustomer with diligence. Due to the high rate of growth that the company was experiencing, including geographical expansion to other countries in Europe, the name of the company was found to be too limiting (Benjamin, 2010). Consequently, the company sought to change its name, adopting its present name from the CTR’s Canadian publication in 1924, a name meant to reflect the company’s mission and aspirations (Doug, 2008). To reduce costs and improve shareholders value, IBM has adopted a supply chain that enables it to bring better and cheaper products in the market. Such areas covered by the supply chain include product development, procurement, supply chain planning and logistics (Buck, 2006). The company collaborates with trading partners to reduce the costs of operation and improve its revenue growth, through negotiating with its suppliers for cheaper supplies, which it procures in bulk. As an element of its supply chain management, the company has adopted business pr ocess outsourcing, allowing it to have its services run by other agencies such as PWC. This contributes to operational efficiency and financial gains for the company. The company does the

Debates on the MMR Vaccination

Debates on the MMR Vaccination Master document text I am no longer trying to dig up evidence to prove vaccines cause autism. There is already abundant evidenceThis debate is not scientific but is political (Ayoub, D. (2006).Using your knowledge of immunology, discuss the arguments for and against the use of vaccination. Vaccination has become an extensively useful strategy for the prevention of infectious disease and continues to be one of the most successful health interventions and  remains one of societys best healthcare investments (ref). Never in the history of human progress, wrote the pathologist Geoffrey Edsal, Has a better and cheaper method of preventing illness been developed than immunisation at its best (ref). The mainly ambitious aim of vaccination is eradication of the disease. This has been achieved for smallpox; the eradication of polio is being attempted and there has been a dramatic downward trend in the incidence of most of the diseases against which vaccines are currently used. The incidence of the invasive disease Haemophilus influenza, which causes bacterial meningitis in children has decreased in the United States of America by an impressive 99%, sby introducing the vaccine in 1988 (ref). Children born in the U.S. are fully vaccinated from the age of 1 years old to adolescence, saving approximately 33,000 lives and an estimated 14 million infections (ref). However, as long as any focus of infection remains in the community, the main effect of vaccination will be the protection of the individual against the disease (ref). The success of a vaccination programme relies not only on the development and use of vaccines themselves, but also on an understanding of the epidemiologic aspe cts of disease transmission (ref).Vaccination aims to prime the adaptive immune system to the antigens of a particular microbe so that a first infection induces a secondary response. The principle of vaccination is simple; to induce a primed state so that on first contact with the relevant infection, a rapid and effective secondary immune response will be mounted, leading to prevention of disease. Vaccination depends upon the ability of lymphocytes, both B and T cells, to respond to specific antigens and develop into memory cells, and therefore represents a form of activity enhanced adaptive immunity (ref).In 1999, the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) and the American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP) requested that vaccine makers should remove a organomercury compound called thiomersal from vaccines (ref). This was phased out of the United States of America and European vaccines, except for some preperations of influenza vaccine (ref). The CDC and the AAP decided that there was no harm in exercising caution, even if it did turn about to be unwarranted, however the actions sparked confusion and controversy which result in the diversion of attention and resources away from the efforts to determine the causes of autism (ref). Child vaccines which contained the thiomersal was alleged to contribute to autism (ref), however in 2004 the Institute of Medicine (IOM) committee rejected any causal relationship between autism and thiomersal-containing vaccines (ref). However the incidence of autism increased steadily despite the removal of thiomersal from childhood vaccine (ref). thiomersal exposure has not been accepted as a factor in causing autism (ref). Immunisation safety is a real concern because all vaccines may cause side effects. Both healthcare workers and patients need reminding that immunisation is an induced controlled stimulus to the immune system, so therefore some adverse reactions can be expected. Most of the reactions however, are transient and mild. Immunisation safety concerns have existed since the day of the first available vaccine. Since the introduction of Jenners cowpox vaccine, the benefits of saving children from tragic outcomes of common diseases outweigh the risks of perceived adverse events following immunisation. Immunisation safety concerns are different from concerns about other medical interventions because they are administered to generally healthy individuals and the tolerance of adverse events following immunisation is subsequently lower compared to adverse events following medication for an existing illness (ref). The success of immunisation programmed depends on the public confidence in their safety despite the side effects vaccines may cause. Concerns about immunisation safety often follow a pattern: a medical condition is suggested as an adverse effect of the vaccination, then a premature announcement is made of the alleged effects which then results in several years to try and regain the publics confidence in the vaccine (ref). Vaccination in the United Kingdom became widespread in the ear;y 1800s after the work by Jenner (ref). Vaccination acts were brought in to force to encourage vaccination and it was made mandatory that all infants in 1853 were vaccinated (ref). Refusal to have the vaccinations received the highest penalty resulting in a prison sentence (ref). The relationship between the British State and its citizens significantly changed, causing a public backlash. In 1867, a law extended the requirements to the age of 14 years old, however, opponents focused in 1898 on it causing an infringement of individuals freedom, which resulted in a law allowing for conscientious objection to compulsory vaccination (ref). Compulsory vaccination policies at various times provoked opposition from people who believe that the government should not be infringing on individuals freedom to choose what medications they take, even if this increases a risk of disease to themselves and others (ref). Some vaccine critics claim that public health has never had any benefits from vaccination (ref). They argue that any reduction on communicable diseases, which were rampant in conditions where overcrowding, poor sanitation, poor diet and an almost non-existent hygiene existed, reduced due to the changes in the conditions excepting vaccination (ref). Others dispute that vaccines only give a temporary immunity and therefore boosters are required, whereas those who have survived the disease develop a permanent immunity (ref). Children who have survived diseases such as diphtheria go on to develop a natural immunity which will remain longer than any immunity developed by the vaccination (ref). Some critics argue that the benefits of reducing the mortality rates among the general population outweigh all health risks associated to older or weaker adults (ref). Vast improvements have been made to public health (ref). Despite vaccines causing side effects and immunisation safety is a real concern, public attention shifts away from the risks as the success of the immunisation programme increases (ref) and the incidence of disease decreases (ref). However health authorities are finding it challenging to preserve public support for the vaccination programmes (ref).The rate in diagnosis of autism has had a worldwide increase (ref) , driven by the broadened diagnostic criteria and increased awareness concerns have been fuelled that vaccines might cause autism (ref). Theories for this alleged association have mainly centred on the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR vaccine (ref). however, studies in biology and epidemiology have failed to support these claims (ref). The MMR vaccine in the United Kingdom was the subject of controversy, when a paper was published in The Lancet in 1998. The paper written by a Gastroenterologist Dr Andrew Wakefield et al, reporting a small study of 12 children, whom mostly with autism spectrum disorders with sudden onset after administration of the Vaccine (ref). During a 1998 press conference, Andrew Wakefield suggested that it would be safer to give children the vaccine in three separate doses rather than a single vaccination. This suggestion was never supported by the paper and subsequent peer-reviewed studies failed to find any association between the autism and the vaccine (ref). In 2001 and 2002, the controversy grew momentum. In 2001 26% of family doctors felt that the government had failed to prove that there was no link between autism and the MMR (ref). By 2002, over 1257 stories were published (ref). The confidence in the MMR fell as a result of the scare, from 59% to 41% (ref). A survey of 366 family doct ors in the United Kingdom in 2003, reported that 77% would recommend giving the child the MMR vaccine, even if there was a close family history of autism (ref). In the same study an extremely small number, 3% of the family doctors thought that autism could sometimes be the caused by the MMR vaccine (ref). A similar survey (ref) found that confidence in the MMR had been increasing over the previous two years (ref). Most of the UK National Health Service doctors only had the combined vaccine and those who did not want to give their children the combined vaccine had to pay for the separate vaccines or not vaccinate their children (ref), which added to the controversy of the MMR. Tony Blair, who was the Prime Minister at the time, strongly supported the vaccines stating the vaccine was safe (ref mmr vaccine). However, on several occasions Tony Blair would refuse on grounds of personal privacy whether his son had received the vaccine, in contrast the now immunised (ref), The risks of children catching the disease while waiting for the full immunisation coverage decreases with the administration of the combined vaccine instead of separate vaccines (ref). The combined vaccines two injections cause the children less pain and distress, rather that the six injections required by the separate vaccines, and there is the likelihood of some being delayed or missed due to extra clinic visits (ref). Vaccination uptake had significantly increased in the UK when the MMR became available in 1988 (ref mmr vaccine). Health professionals have heavily criticised media coverage of the controversy from triggering a decline in vaccination rates (ref mmr). MMR vaccination compliance dropped significantly after the controversy began in the UK, from 92% in 1996 to 84% in 2002. In 2003, in some London boroughs, it was a low as 615, which is far below the rate needed to avoid an epidemic of measles (ref). The incidence of the three diseases increased significantly in the UK (ref). 56% cases of measles were confirmed in the 1998, this increased over the years and in 2006, 449 cases were reported in first five months of the year (ref)m and the first death since 1992, these cases occurred in children who were inadequately vaccinated (ref). In 1999, cases of mumps began to rising after years of very few cases and by the year 2005, there was a mumps epidemic with nearly 5000 notifications in January 2005 alone (ref). Disease outbreaks also caused casualties in nearby countries. In Ireland an outbreak in 2000 resulted in 1500 cases and 3 deaths, all as a result of the decrease vaccination rates following the MMR controversy (ref) Measles was declared an endemic in the UK in 2008 for the first time in 14 years. A population of susceptible children who would spread the disease was created following the low MMR vaccination rates (ref). MMR vaccination rates amongst English children have remained unchanged in 2007-08, a level to low to prevent another serious measles outbreak (ref). It later emerged that Andrew Wakefield had not informed the medical authorities or colleagues that he had received funding from litigants against vaccine manufacturers (ref). Wakefield has been heavily criticised for instigating a decline in the vaccination rates and medically (ref) especially on the way the research was conducted ethically (ref) The Sunday Times in 2009 reported that patient data was manipulated by Wakefield and misreported the results in his 1998 paper, creating the appearance of a link between autism and the MMR (ref). A systematic review of 31 scientific studies by the Cochrane Library in 2005 concluded that there is no credible evidence to support any links between Autism and the MMR vaccine, and that the MMR is necessary in the prevention of disease with carries the potential rick of complication and even death in some cases (ref). The report also highlighted that the lack of confidence in the MMR has damaged public health and that the design and reporting of the safety outcomes was largely inadequate (ref). Ensuring the safety of vaccination is a major component of the national immunisation programmes of most countries. A major part of this effort is surveillance, and scientific studies about the possible occurrence of adverse events following immunisation. Although a number of vaccine safety studies is increasing, this is not in response to any evidence about the true safety of vaccines, but in response to the increasing number of new vaccines being used and the complex nature of these vaccines. A number of vaccine safety studies have been conducted or are in progress, some in reaction to the climate of concern, some carried out proactively and others as part of ongoing surveillance. However, because the number of safety-orientated studies is increasing, one should be aware that this fact in itself could contribute to the concern.The internet has increasingly become a powerful means of international communication and an almost inexhaustible source of information, capable of playing an influential role in both the positive and the negative sense. It represents a direct and efficacious tool to spread a positive message and to stress the health benefits, economic attractiveness and safety of vaccination. However, inaccurate, misleading or simply wrong information regarding potential side effects or dangers of vaccination spreading through the internet exacerbates worries about vaccine safety and may cause parents to postpone or refuse vaccination of their children. A wide range of issues concerning vaccine safety is being taken up by anti-vaccination groups as well as by other groups whose concerns may reflect local customs, or religious, political or other beliefs. Anti-vaccination lobbies have also understood the possibilities of the internet can be exploited and could strengthen their means to campaign against vaccination. This is demonstrated by the occurrence of a multitude of specific websites heavily relying on emotional appeal while proclaiming a message that undermines the benefits of vaccination. Vaccine scares continue to have an impact on immunisation coverage. To respond to this challenge, there is a need to develop vaccine communication strategies that provide a balance between evidence-based information and advocacy and lobbying activities. Furthermore, compiling independent, international reviews of vaccine safety issues is required, together with relevant statements from authoritative neutral expert groups. This should be done within a h3 international collaboration, with direct, early and clear statements agreed on by authorities and other key parties, preceding public communications. Creating a positive environment for immunisation can be achieved by supporting evidence-based information thus repositioning the importance and value of vaccines and vaccination. This will ultimately ease the task of health care decision makers, especially in developing proactive communication strategies to deal with crises that have a potentially negative impact on vaccine coverage, and consequently on the health status of children.Loss of public confidence in vaccination is one of the greatest threats to public health and must be addressed by local, national and international bodies, pooling resources, to prepare for possible issues that might be taken up by anti-vaccination groups or the media. The health care community should actively promote, and personally recommend, the benefits and safety of vaccination in language that is readily and easily understood by the targeted audience.

Why Hamlet Needs To Die Essay -- Literary Analysis

Hamlet's view of death morphs through the course of the play as he is faced with various problems and troubles that force him to deal with life differently. This holds particular significance for a modern audience who, unlike the predominately Christian audiences of Shakespeare's time, contains an assortment of perspectives on the subject. For the majority of the play, Hamlet yearns for death, but there are different tones to his yearning as he confronts death in different circumstances; from his encounter with his father's ghost to the discovery of his beloved Ophelia dead in the ground, Hamlet feels an irrepressible urge to end his life. There are obstacles that get in his way, both internal and external, and Shakespeare's play is an account of Hamlet's struggle with them. When we first meet Hamlet, he is moping around Elsinore Castle on account of his father's recent death and his mother's more recent marriage to his uncle. In the first act of the play, it has been two months since King Hamlet was laid in the ground—a fairly short time ago in terms of grief, but not so long that family members could not conceivably begin their lives again, as Hamlet's mother has done in marrying her late husband's brother. Hamlet is still in mourning clothes, is wholly fixated on the loss of his father, and is positively mortified and revolted by his mother's apparent indifference. In the play's first conversation between Hamlet and his newlywed parents, they chide him for his "obstinate condolement" for his father (1.2.93). They believe that "Hamlet's long mourning for his father is against not only the rule of nature, grace, or grace, but also heaven" (Hassel 612). Thinking of death makes Hamlet an unpleasant person for the newlywe... ...zlw4MBx3Rc3yxAK4i00QEjo#v=onepage&q=&f=false>. Gottschalk, Paul. "Hamlet and the Scanning of Revenge." Shakespeare Quarterly, 24.2 (1973): 155-170. JSTOR Database. 13 Nov. 2009 . Hassel, Chris, Jr. "Hamlet's 'Too, Too Solid Flesh." The Sixteenth Century Journal, 25.3 (1994): 609-622. JSTOR Database. 13 Nov. 2009 . Russell, John. "Dust and Divinity: Hamlet's Fractured World." Hamlet and Narcissus. Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1995. 39-50. Rpt. in Shakespearean Criticism. Ed. Michelle Lee. Vol. 92. Detroit: Gale, 2005. 39-50. Literature Resource Center. Gale. 14 Nov. 2009 . Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. The Bedford Introduction to Drama. Ed. Jacobus, Lee A. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009. 340-393.